A

Abrams, P.A., 73, 74, 141, 194, 225

absolute fitness, 49, 50, 62, 85, 96, 97, 226, 233

Abugov, R., 52, 67

adapt, adapted, adaptedness, etc.

meaning of, 197

adaptation

defined in terms of heritable capacities, 196, 197, 199, 200

adaptationist program. See natural selection paradigms: survival of the fittest

adaptedness, overall, 25, 26, 28, 46, 47, 72, 74, 75, 153, 154, 165, 166, 190, 191, 192, 193, 194, 196, 197, 199, 201, 222, 223, 224, 225

adaptive topography, 52, 66, 67, 75, 136, 145

Akopyants, N.S., 104

Albert, B., 138

altruism. See cooperation

Amada, Y., 104

Ameisen, J.C., 119

Anderson, P, 119

Anderson, W.W., xv, 12, 143, 167, 173

Antonarakis, S.E., 104

Ariew, A., xv

Arisaka, F., 46

Armour, J.A., 104

asexual reproduction, 65, 70, 83, 86, 102, 105, 116, 117, 120, 123, 126, 145, 147, 148, 149, 182, 188, 194, 203, 205, 206, 207, 208, 210, 211, 212, 213, 214, 216, 217, 219, 220, 221

Asmussen, M.A., 12

Assouad, M.W., 138

Atlan, A., 138

average effect of a gene substitution, 55, 58, 59, 226

average fitness of population. See population fitness

Avramopoulos, D., 104

Axelrod, R., 76, 77, 79

B

Babloyantz, A., 143

bacteria, 6, 7, 45, 88, 112, 151

Escherichia coli. See Escherichia coli

Bargal, R., 105

Barton, N.H., 55

Batts, D., 46

Beatty, J., 14, 165, 183, 185

Beauchamp, R., 104

Belhassen, E., 138

Bell, D.A., 104

Bell, G., 118, 119

Berg, D.E., 104

Bernstein, C., 105

Bernstein, H., xv, 6, 7, 19, 21, 22, 23, 26, 28, 31, 35, 44, 45, 101, 105, 143, 147, 159, 160, 168, 169, 171, 172, 173, 174, 195

biology

different from other sciences, xii, xiii, 6, 145, 161, 163, 164, 171, 197

purpose in. See purpose in biology

Blackstone, N.W., 119, 129, 130, 131

Blattner, F.R., 46

Bloch, C.A., 46

Blumenthal, E.Z., 104

body size, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 91, 95, 97, 102, 103, 121, 122, 214. See also conflict mediation: body size and

Boerlijst, M.C., 40, 42, 79, 136

Boyd, R., 76, 108, 119, 131

Brandon, R.N., xv, 14, 165, 180, 186, 187, 188, 225

Briand, P., 104

Bridson, P.K., 20

Brown, J.S., 75, 192

Burland, V., 46

Burns, T.P., 159, 166, 225

Buss, L.W., xv, 7, 81, 107, 108, 124, 130, 131

Byerly, H.C., xv, 6, 7, 17, 19, 21, 22, 23, 26, 28, 31, 35, 44, 45, 101, 143, 147, 159, 160, 168, 169, 171, 172, 173, 174, 175, 177, 183, 186, 187, 194, 195, 196, 198

C

Cameron, R.A., 129, 130, 131

canalization. See fitness: canalization of

Carson, D.A., 119

Cavalli-Sforza, L.L., 77

Cech, T.R., 19

cell

evolution of, 43-45

heritable capacities of, 45-46

origin of, 29-48. See transition, evolutionary: from gene groups to cells

transition to multicellular organism. See transition, evolutionary: from cells to organisms

cell death, 87, 90, 91, 93, 103, 119, 122

cellular selection, 64, 65, 84, 85, 86, 90, 93, 105, 113, 130, 131, 231. See also organism: within organism change

Chakravarti, A., 104

Charlesworth, B., 11, 12, 143, 175, 225

Charlesworth, D., 138

Chigira, M., 104

chromosome

origin of, 8, 30, 43, 44

Chu, E.H.Y., 105

Clarke, G.M., 144

Clauss, M., xv

cloning, 128, 149, 194

and immortality, 128

Collado-Vides, J., 46

Comins, H.N., 40

complementarity, 19, 47

conflict mediation

basic effect is to increase heritability of fitness, 117

body size and, 84, 102, 121. See also body size

chromosomes and. See chromosomes

evolution of mutation rate and. See mutation rate: evolution of

evolutionary transitions and, 4, 9, 13, 43, 105, 122, 130, 131, 134, 136, 137, 138, 168, 202

germ line. See germ line

group selection and. multilevel selection

kinship and. See kin selection and zygote

learning and. See reciprocal altruism, tit-for-tat and prisoner's dilemna game

maternal control of cell behavior, 130

mode of development and, 36, 41, 42, 129, 130, 131

reciprocation and. See reciprocal altruism, tit-for-tat and prisoner's dilemna game

self-policing. See policing

zygote stage and, 4, 66, 82, 104, 108, 125, 136

constant selection, 16, 51, 52, 54, 154, 178, 199

constraints, evolutionary

genetic, 70, 71, 72, 73, 75, 194

masking of adaptedness, 194, 197

modification of, 71-72

Cooke, F., 61

Cooper, W.S., 166

cooperation

change in study of, xi, xii

conditions for increase of, 79, 91, 92, 93, 97, 100, 102, 112, 114, 117, 132, 178

leads to a decrease in heritability, 4, 47, 112, 113, 117, 118, 124, 125, 126, 127, 132, 135, 136, 137

origin of, 33, 75, 76, 77, 152

trades fitness between levels, xi, 9, 30, 32, 83, 84, 135, 137, 139, 140, 169, 183, 188, 198, 202

Coppes, M.J., 104

Corl, A., xv

cost of commonness. See natural selection paradigms: survival of anybody

cost of rarity. See natural selection paradigms: survival of the first

Couvet, D., 138

covariance approach to natural selection, xiv, 4, 14, 15, 17, 55, 56, 57, 58, 62, 63, 66, 82, 89, 90, 93, 95, 98, 99, 100, 102, 108, 122, 123, 152, 177, 179, 203, 205, 206, 207, 208, 210, 212, 213

Cox, M.M., 44

Coyne, J.A., 55

Crow, J.F., 10, 55, 104

D

Darwin, C., xii, xiii, 4, 5, 6, 13, 17, 25, 26, 27, 28, 34, 35, 72, 73, 107, 124, 134, 139, 140, 141, 142, 158, 159, 161, 162, 165, 167, 168, 169, 170, 171, 172, 173, 174, 175, 177, 183, 187, 188, 195, 200, 222, 225, 233

Darwinian dynamic, 5, 6, 20, 22, 27, 33, 71, 167, 168, 169, 170, 172, 174, 180, 183, 200

Darwinian fitness, 175, 233. See also individual fitness

Darwin's conditions, 4, 5, 6, 17, 26, 34, 72, 107, 124, 134, 141, 142, 161, 162, 167, 168, 169, 170, 171, 172, 174, 177, 183, 187, 200, 233

Darwin's dilemmas. See species: distinctness of

Davidson, E.H., 129, 130, 131

Dawkins, R., xiii, 139, 172, 233

De Feo, O., 73

De Paepe, R., 138

decomposing fitness. See deconstructing fitness

deconstructing fitness, 10, 11, 12, 13, 22, 45, 61, 165, 167, 187, 190, 199

Demerec, M., 104

Dennis, J., 104

Denniston, C., 10, 55

Dermen, H., 105

Desfeux, C., 138

design, xii, xiii, xiv, 4, 7, 17, 22, 23, 24, 28, 32, 34, 45, 47, 75, 133, 134, 135, 140, 142, 145, 154, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 167, 168, 172, 182, 189, 191, 193, 195, 196, 198, 222, 223, 224, 225. See also heritable capacity

no plan for in biology, 4, 135, 161, 162

development

type 1 and conflict mediation. See conflict mediation: mode of development and

within organism change and, xv, 4, 14, 16, 56, 62, 64, 65, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 97, 103, 105, 108, 109, 110, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 119, 120, 121, 126, 128, 129, 130, 131, 136, 170, 197, 205, 208, 211, 214, 215, 216, 231

Dewey, J., 161

Diekmann, O., 73

diploidy, 8, 44, 49, 57, 58, 63, 65, 83, 86, 101, 102, 103, 109, 110, 147, 148, 154, 156, 157, 203, 204, 205, 206, 207, 208, 209, 210, 211, 212, 213, 214, 215, 216, 218, 219, 220

Djavakhishvili, T., 46

Dobzhansky, T., 225

Dommee, B., 138

Donaghue, T., 104

Drake, J.W., 88, 112

Drosophila, 89, 138, 148, 173

Du Mouchel, W.H., 167

Dugatkin, L.A., 77

E

Eaton, K.A., 104

Edelman, G.M., 161, 171

Edgerton, S.M., 104

Edwards, A.W.F., 59

Eigen, M., 7, 8, 19, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 29, 33, 34, 35, 37, 47, 72, 168, 172, 174

Ellison, A.M., 119, 129, 130, 131

Endler, J.A., 140, 164, 166, 169, 171, 225, 233

Engels, W.R., 55

Enomoto, M., 104

Enquist, M., 77

Enserink, M., 138

Escherichia coli, 45, 46

Eshel, I., 73, 77

ESS. See evolutionarily stable strategy

evolutionarily stable strategy, 16, 70, 71, 72, 194, 224

evolutionary success, 10, 11, 25, 28, 46, 47, 134, 140, 141, 142, 155, 162, 165, 166, 180, 182, 184, 185, 186, 189, 190, 191, 199, 201

explanation in biology. explanation, evolutionary

explanation, evolutionary

adaptedness and. See heritable capacity or adaptedness, overall

adequacy criterion for understanding role of fitness, 18, 134, 200

explaining fitness, 200, 201, 200-202

heritable capacity and. See heritable capacity

heterozygote superiority. See heterozygote superiority: evolutionary explanation and

models and. See mathematical model

role of fitness, xiii, 132-60, 161-202

role of heritability. See heritability of fitness

supervenience and. See supervenience

tautology in. See tautology

exponential growth. See population growth: exponential

F

Fagerstrom, T., 225

Falconer, D.S., 56, 125

Farber, E., 104

Feldman, M.W., 12, 67

Ferriere, R., xv, 40, 42, 73, 77, 78, 79

F-fitness, 9, 10, 11, 16, 22, 24, 26, 142, 152, 155, 159, 160, 164, 167, 168, 175, 177, 178, 182, 183, 185, 186, 187, 189, 190, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198, 199, 200, 201, 226, 227, 231

Fisher, R.A., xii, xiv, xv, 10, 11, 12, 13, 16, 26, 53, 55, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 142, 145, 146, 147, 155, 159, 164, 166, 175, 177, 178, 182, 187, 193, 197, 201, 219, 225, 226, 227. See also fundamental theorem of natural selection

Fisherian fitness. See F-fitness

fitness

absolute. See absolute fitness

additive model of fitness, 58, 59, 60, 67, 69, 75, 152, 208, 217, 228

and life history. See life history and fitness

and spatial distribution. See natural selection: spatial distribution and, also see population structure

as a transformation through time, 15, 65. See also F-fitness

as adaptedness. See adaptedness, overall

as evolutionary success. See evolutionary success

as per capita rate of increase. See F-fitness

as persistence over time, 27, 200

as rate of increase, 10, 11, 17, 58, 141, 143, 155, 159, 166, 175, 176, 185, 198, 223. See also F-fitness

canalization of, 58

constant. See constant selection

Darwinian. See Darwinian fitness

decomposition. See deconstructing fitness

deconstructing. See deconstructing fitness

does not increase in evolution, 60, 201, 202

dynamical point of view, xii, xiii, xiv, 5, 6, 16, 38, 61, 70, 71, 72, 73, 111, 134, 139, 140, 141, 142, 144, 152, 157, 164, 168, 172, 174, 175, 197, 202, 217, 220. See also F-fitness

explaining fitness, 198, 199, 200-202

frequency-dependent. See frequency-dependent selection

genotypic, 51, 57, 58, 67, 153, 154, 175, 176, 187, 192, 207. See also individual fitness

heritability of. See heritability of fitness

in evolutionary explanation. See explanation, evolutionary: role of fitness

in time varying environment, 166

inclusive. See inclusive fitness

individual. See individual fitness

intrinsic rate of increase. See intrinsic rate of increase

levels of, xii, 54, 135. See also transitions, evolutionary

long term measure of, 166

maximization of, 3, 4, 69, 70, 74, 76, 133, 138, 139, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 172, 176, 196, 224

mutant invasion and, 11, 34, 40, 72, 73, 77, 78, 79, 91, 92, 93. See also cooperation: conditions for increase of

net reproductive rate, 175

operational, 164. See also evolutionary success

organisms. See organisms: origin of fitness of

origin of. See origin of fitness

parental effects on. See parental effects

population. See population fitness

relative. See relative fitness

reproductive value. See reproductive value

selective value. See selective value

traded between levels. See cooperation: trades fitness between levels

two basic senses of, 12, 140, 164, 165, 222, 223

whether cause or effect, 137, 191, 222

whether it is a property of individuals, xiii, 11, 47, 134, 153, 154, 176, 177, 185, 191, 192, 193, 201, 223, 224. See also adaptedness, overall

Wrightian. See Wrightian fitness

Florian, M., 104

fluctuating asymmetry, 144, 224

Fox, D.A., 105

Fox, S.W., 39

Francis, C.M., 61

Frank, S.A., 53, 59, 60, 61, 108, 119, 131

frequency-dependent selection, xi, xiii, 3, 4, 8, 9, 12, 16, 17, 30, 32, 34, 35, 47, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 61, 62, 67, 69, 70, 71, 73, 74, 75, 76, 80, 133, 136, 138, 139, 141, 143, 145, 153, 172, 176, 178, 179, 192, 194, 195, 201

as a threat to higher level units, 9, 52, 53, 54, 75, 80, 135, 136

FST statistic of population structure. See Wright's FST statistic

fundamental theorem of natural selection, xiv, 13, 53, 55, 57, 58, 59, 187, 197, 201

G

game theory and evolution. See evolutionarily stable strategy

Gardiner, W., 19, 22, 29

Gatenby, R.A., 104

Gaul, H., 105

Gavrilets, S., xv, 55

Gayley, T., 71, 72

genetic code, 29, 233

genetic constraints. See constraints, evolutionary: genetic

genetic drift, 171, 175, 196

genetic relatedness, 8, 40, 42, 69, 75, 79, 108, 136, 149

genotypic fitness, 177, 233

Gerard, J.F., 70, 75

Geritz, S.A.H., 73, 77

Gerken, S., 104

germ line, 5, 13, 42, 66, 89, 105, 108, 109, 110, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 126, 128, 130, 131, 133, 137, 150, 151, 152, 230

Gillespie, J.H., 166

Ginzburg, L.R., 10, 233

Glansdorff, P., 143

Glasner, J.D., 46

Glicksman, A.S., 104

Gliddon, C.J., 225

Godelle, B., 8, 138

Gouyon, P.H., xv, 138, 225

group selection. See multilevel selection

Guttman, B., 46

gynodioecy, 138, 139, 188

H

Hague, A., 104

Haldane, J.B.S., xiv, 39, 89, 101, 143, 166

Hamilton, W.D., xv, 42, 62, 67, 68, 69, 76, 77, 79

Hamilton's rule, 42, 68, 69

Hammerstein, P., 73

Hanash, S.M., 105

haploidy, 64, 70, 86, 89, 91, 93, 95, 98, 101, 102, 103, 109, 110, 111, 126, 147, 148, 203, 204, 208, 209, 210, 211, 212, 213, 214, 215, 216

Harada, K., 39

Harada, Y., 73, 74, 141, 194, 225

Hardin, G., 33, 80, 136

Hassell, M.P., 40

Hasson, O., 189

Hastings, I.M., 8

Hebets, E., xv

heritability of fitness

and evolution of sex, 148, 149

as condition for natural selection, 5, 6, 7, 22, 26, 34, 107, 124, 125, 139, 141, 167, 168, 170, 177, 179, 188, 199

definition of, 86, 91, 112, 125, 126

effect of conflict mediation on. See conflict mediation

effect of evolution of cooperation on. See cooperation

effect of sex on, 101, 102, 103, 129

increased at new level, 4, 7, 108, 123, 127, 131, 137, 138, 152, 180

role in evolutionary explanation, 180, 181, 187, 192

role in evolutionary transition, 107-32, 179-81, 85, 86, 90, 91, 93, 95, 96, 98, 108, 114, 122, 124, 125, 126, 127, 137, 152, 168, 179, 180, 200, 202, 203, 217, 219

heritable capacity, 11, 12, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 34, 45, 46, 73, 134, 135, 142, 152, 154, 162, 164, 165, 166, 168, 169, 170, 175, 177, 182, 183, 185, 186, 187, 188, 189, 190, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198, 199, 200, 201

as components of design, 189-91, 198, 199

hermaphrodism, 138, 139, 149, 218, 220

heterozygote superiority

evolutionary explanation and, 5, 133, 154, 155, 156, 177, 178, 180, 188, 195

hierarchical structure, xi, 4, 6, 7, 54, 55, 62, 63, 80, 83, 89, 107, 124, 133, 134, 135, 139, 152, 163, 166, 172, 179, 202, 233. See also multilevel selection, organizational structure

Hoekstra, R.F., 8

Hofbauer, J., 72

Hoff-Olsen, P., 104

Hogeweg, P., 40, 42, 79, 136

Hopf, F.A., xv, 6, 7, 19, 21, 22, 23, 26, 28, 31, 35, 44, 45, 89, 101, 143, 147, 159, 160, 168, 169, 171, 172, 173, 174, 195

Hopf. F.W., 28, 159, 173, 195

Houston, A.I., 77

Hughes, R.N., 105

Hull, D.L., 107, 124

human mind

as a Darwinian system, 161, 162

Hurst, L.D., 8, 225

hypercycle. See transition, evolutionary: from genes to gene groups

I

Igari, T., 104

immortality, 5, 128, 133, 150, 151, 152

immune system, 108, 119, 151. See also policing

inclusive fitness, 13, 52, 61, 66, 67, 68, 69, 136, 143, 152, 153, 175, 192, 196

individual fitness, xiii, 5, 9, 14, 17, 49, 50, 51, 53, 54, 57, 58, 60, 61, 68, 70, 73, 74, 98, 100, 110, 123, 136, 138, 139, 141, 143, 145, 146, 147, 148, 152, 153, 154, 155, 157, 164, 175, 176, 177, 178, 179, 180, 185, 186, 192, 195, 196, 197, 205, 224, 229, 231

as a placeholder for further analysis, 176, 186

average of. See population fitness

not dynamically sufficient, 175, 176, 177, 178, 179, 180

whether it is a property of individuals. See fitness: whether it is a property of individuals

individuality

as a way of avoiding problems of frequency dependent selection, 47

cloning and. See cloning

costs of, 31

definition, 17, 107, 108, 114, 132

emergence of, xi, xii, xiii, xv, 3, 7, 8, 9, 13, 17, 21, 24, 32, 39, 42, 43, 62, 64, 76, 77, 79, 80, 82, 97, 106, 112, 114, 132, 133, 134, 136, 142, 143, 168, 169, 172, 174, 179, 188

heritability of fitness and, 124-27

of multicellular organism, 107-32

role in conflict mediation, 42, 47, 109, 127, 132

sex and. See sex: effect on evolutionary transition

intrinsic rate of increase, 143, 175

Ionov, Y., 104

J

Jablonka, E., 105

Jablonski, D., 167

Jacobs, F.J.A., 73

Jayakar, S.D., 143, 166

Johnstone, R.A., 225

Jonker, L.B., 72

K

Kauffman, S.A., 20

Kazarinova-Fukshansky, N., 105

Kerbel, R.S., 104

Kikuchi-Yanoshita, R., 104

Kimura, M., 10

kin selection, xv, 8, 13, 16, 37, 42, 52, 55, 66, 79, 80, 124, 130, 136, 137, 143, 152, 154, 177, 192, 195, 202

King, C.E., 12, 143

Kisdi, E., 73

Kleiner, S., xv

Klekowski, E.J., Jr., 105

Knoll, A.H., 129

Kondrashov, A.S., 55, 101

Konishi, M., 104

Koufopanou, V., 118

Krespi, A.E., 104

Krespis, E.N., 104

Kuhn, H., 24

Kuick, R.D., 105

Kupryjanczyk, J., 104

Kutter, E., 46

L

Lamb, M.J., 105

Lavigne, C.M-F., xv

laws in biology. See natural selection: as a law

Leimar, O., 77

Leith, J.T., 104

Lennox, J.G., 225

Leon, J.A., 12, 143

Lerner, I.M., 144

Levene, H., 143

Levin, B.R., 127, 150

Lewontin, R.C., 6, 7, 13, 107, 124, 164, 174, 200, 225

Li, C.C., 55, 59

Lie, J., xv, 84, 102, 121

Liefers, G.J., 104

life history and fitness, 5, 7, 12, 16, 20, 21, 27, 57, 125, 134, 135, 136, 139, 162, 163, 164, 169, 173, 176, 177, 188, 199, 200, 201, 202

linkage disequilibrium, xii, 55, 111, 123, 150, 230

Lohrmann, R., 20, 23

Lorberbaum, J., 76

M

Madsen, M.W., 104

Malkhosyan, S., 104

Malthusian growth. See population growth: exponential

Malthusian parameter, 10, 223

Manicacci, D., 138

Manning, A.M., 104

Marchant, J., 140

Margulis, L., 9, 81

Marrow, P., 225

mathematical model, 3, 11, 12, 13, 16, 17, 18, 49, 61

Matsuda, H., 73, 74, 141, 194, 225

Matsunami, N., 104

Maurice, S., 138

May, R.M., 40, 77

Mayhew, G.F., 46

Maynard Smith, J., xv, 7, 8, 9, 20, 21, 27, 28, 41, 44, 70, 71, 77, 102, 105, 108, 118, 124, 131, 143, 147, 148, 177

McClain, M.E., 44

McGlade, J.M., 73

McIntosh, M., xv

McKenzie, J.A., 144

mediating conflict. See conflict mediation. See conflict mediation

Meling, G.I., 104

Merritt, V., 104

Mesyanzhinov, V., 46

Meszena, G., 73

Metz, J.A.J., 73

Meyer, F.G., 105

Michelson, S., 104

Michod, R.E., xv, 6, 7, 8, 16, 17, 19, 21, 22, 23, 24, 26, 27, 28, 31, 35, 37, 40, 41, 42, 44, 45, 52, 66, 67, 71, 72, 75, 77, 78, 79, 82, 84, 86, 88, 89, 90, 92, 94, 96, 99, 101, 102, 103, 105, 110, 111, 114, 116, 117, 118, 120, 123, 124, 126, 127, 128, 130, 139, 141, 143, 147, 150, 153, 155, 159, 160, 161, 168, 169, 171, 172, 173, 174, 175, 177, 178, 183, 186, 187, 189, 192, 194, 195, 196, 198, 199, 209, 210, 211, 212, 213, 214, 215, 216

Miller, B.E., 104

Miller, S.L., 20

Mills, S., 14, 165, 183, 185

Miyaki, M., 104

model. See mathematical model

molecular replicator, 23, 24, 25, 28, 32, 45, 46, 170. See also RNA

Mĝller, A.P., 144, 225

Morrell, V., 82

Mosig, G., 46

Muller, H.J., 101

multilevel selection, xii, xiv, xv, 8, 13, 16, 40, 54, 55, 65, 81, 82, 85, 100, 133, 138, 139, 142, 143, 152, 162, 176, 177, 179, 181, 188, 202

Muraoka, M., 104

mutation

as informational error, 7, 19, 20, 37, 43, 150

as source of within organism change, 4, 14, 37, 56, 62, 64, 65, 66, 80, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 97, 98, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 109, 111, 112, 113, 116, 117, 118, 122, 123, 124, 125, 131, 136, 137, 169, 181, 197, 203, 208, 211, 213, 214, 215, 216, 217

masking of, 44, 101, 102, 118, 147

source of variation. See quasispecies

mutation rate

evolution of, 87, 88, 89, 101, 102, 118, 119, 118-19, 131

Mylius, S.D., 73

N

Nasonia, 138

natural selection. See also fitness

as a law, 169, 170, 171, 172

as different from everyday selection, 13, 14, 57, 60, 179, 181, 187, 188

constant fitness. See constant selection

covariance approach. See covariance approach to natural selection

Darwin's conditions for. See Darwin's conditions

definition of, 6

frequency-dependent. See frequency-dependent selection

fundamental theorem of. See fundamental theorem of natural selection

group selection. See multilevel selection

multilevel. See multilevel selection

no plan for. See design: no plan for in biology

population growth and. See natural selection paradigms

schema for, 181-83, 168, 181, 183

sexual selection. See sexual selection

spatial distribution and, 13, 36, 37, 40, 42, 47, 72, 73, 77, 78, 79, 202

natural selection paradigms

survival of anybody, 26, 27, 28, 34, 72, 73, 74, 141, 172, 173, 174, 194

survival of the first, 28, 33, 34, 35, 46, 72, 141, 159, 160, 172, 173, 174, 194, 195

survival of the fittest, 25, 26, 27, 28, 34, 35, 46, 75, 141, 142, 155, 159, 173, 174, 178, 182, 194, 222

Neel, J.V., 105

Netting, J., xv

Nicholis, G., 143

Nielsen, K.V., 104

Nisbet, R.M., 73, 77

Noest, A.J., 159

Nowak, M.A., 70, 76, 77

Nowell, P.C., 104

Nur, N., 143, 166

Nur, U., 138

O

Olaisen, B., 104

Oparin, A.I., 39

optimality theory. See survival of the fittest

organism

between organism change, 66, 91, 93, 110, 111, 119, 152

easy to be confused by, xiii

fitness of. See fitness: whether it is a property of individuals

origin of fitness of, 83, 91, 94, 203-17, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 102, 103, 104, 112, 121, 126, 127, 152

origin of fitness of organisms, 83

origin of organism. See transition, evolutionary: from cells to organisms

within organism change, 4, 14, 82, 84, 86, 87, 89, 90, 91, 93, 94, 95, 96, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 108, 109, 112, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 131, 132, 137, 142, 168, 169, 177, 179, 198, 206, 214, 216, 217

organizational structure, 13, 29, 30, 42, 43, 107, 139, 141, 162, 163, 198, 200

Orgel, L.E., 19, 20

origin of fitness, 19-28, 27, 163, 164

origin of life, xii, xiv, 19, 20, 24, 29, 32, 36, 39, 44. See also origin of fitness

Orive, M.E., 86, 104

Otto, S.P., 86, 104

overlapping generations, 57

P

Palmer, A.R., 144

parasite, 27, 40

Paraskeva, C., 104

parental effects, 130, 181, 187

Parker, G.A., 70, 77, 143, 225

Paul, P., 104

Payley, W., xii, 162

Peinado, M.A., 104

Perna, N.T., 46

Perucho, M., 104

Peterson, K.J., 129, 130

Peterson, S., 46

phage T4. See virus

Pianka, E.R., 225

policing, 13, 42, 66, 108, 109, 110, 115, 119, 120, 121, 122, 126, 131, 137, 230

Pollock, G.B., 77

Pomente, D., 138

Pomiankowski, A., 144

Popper, K., xiii, xiv

population fitness, 49, 50, 51, 52, 58, 70, 95, 145, 223

population growth

exponential, 11, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 33, 35, 36, 37, 46, 173, 182, 189. See also natural selection paradigms: survival of the fittest

hypercyclic. See population growth: superexponential

intrinsic rate of increase. See intrinsic rate of increase

Malthusian. See population growth: exponential

selection and. See population fitness

subexponential, 22, 34, 46. See also natural selection paradigms: survival of anybody

superexponential, 34, 35, 36, 37. See also natural selection paradigms: survival of the first

population growth and natural selection. See natural selection paradigms

population structure, 9, 13, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 51, 55, 63, 67, 72, 75, 79, 80, 136, 137, 138, 152, 153, 157, 200

Price, G.R., xii, 14, 15, 16, 55, 56, 57, 59, 60, 62, 63, 64, 70, 82, 89, 90, 98, 99, 102, 122, 123, 124, 177, 179, 181, 197, 204, 206, 214

Prigogine, I., 143

prisoner's dilemma game, 70, 75, 76, 77, 79, 138, 176, 229. See also tit-for-tat

programmed cell death, 108, 119, 151. See also policing

propensity interpretation of fitness, 102, 153, 171, 177, 183, 184, 185, 186, 188, 190, 191, 192, 193, 199, 203, 214

shortcomings of, 183-86

Prout, T., 167

Provine, W.B., 16, 17

purpose in biology, 162, 163, 164, 165. See also design

Q

quantitative genetics, 56, 170, 180, 187

quasispecies, 37, 38, 47

Quenette, P.Y., 70, 75

R

Ramel, C., 104

Rand, D.A., 73

Ransick, A., 129, 131

Rebek, J., 19

Reboud, X., 8

reciprocal altruism, 8, 16, 76, 79, 192, 202

recombination, xiii, 7, 14, 44, 57, 60, 71, 72, 102, 109, 110, 111, 112, 116, 120, 121, 124, 128, 129, 176, 178, 194, 217, 230

molecular, origin of, 44

Reiss, J., xv

relatedness. See genetic relatedness

relative fitness, 96, 97, 211, 215, 230, 233

replication. See self-replication

reproductive system

asexual. See asexual reproduction

cloning. See cloning

diploidy. See diploidy

gynodioecy. See gynodioecy

haploidy. See haploidy

makes natural selection different from everyday selection, 14, 57, 60, 179, 181, 194, 195

selfing. See selfing

sex. See sex

reproductive value, 175

Ribeiro, J.M., 119

Richerson, P.J., 108, 119, 131

Riley, M., 46

RNA

single-stranded, 19, 20, 24, 29, 32, 36, 44. See also molecular replicator

Robertson, A., 55

Rockwell, R.F., 61

Rode, C.K., 46

Rosenberg, A., 14, 18, 189, 192, 225

Roughgarden, J., 12, 50, 143

Roze, D., xv, 89, 110, 111, 116, 120, 123, 124, 126, 127, 218

Ruger, W., 46

Ruse, M., 16, 17

S

Sakorafas, G.H., 104

Sanderson, M.J., 75, 79, 89, 101, 147, 192

Schuster, P., 7, 8, 19, 20, 21, 22, 29, 33, 35, 72, 172, 174

scientific law. See natural selection: as a law

selection

differences between natural and everyday. See natural selection: as different from everyday selection

everyday, commonsense, xiv, 13, 14, 60, 181, 187, 201

natural selection. See natural selection

selective value, 175, 233

selfing, 133, 145, 146, 178, 188

self-replication, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 29, 30, 31, 33, 34, 35, 46, 47, 134, 163, 168, 193, 227. See also complementarity

sex

and immortality. See immortality

effect on evolutionary transition, 101, 102, 103, 116, 117, 120, 124, 127, 128, 129, 204, 205, 207, 208, 209, 214, 215, 216, 217, 219

effect on individuality. See sex: effect on evolutionary transition

effect on natural selection, 10, 11, 13, 14, 26, 28, 34, 46, 47, 57, 60, 68, 71, 72, 157, 160, 178, 181, 185, 194, 195, 198, 201. See also cost of rarity

evolution of, 5, 44, 118, 127, 128, 145, 146, 148, 174, 180, 188, 219, 220, 230

rediscovered as new individuals emerge, 47, 127

species and, 160. See also species: distinctness of

sexual selection, 13, 16, 189, 195

Shibata, D., 104

shifting balance process of evolution, 53, 54, 55

sickle cell anemia, 133, 156, 195

Sigmund, K., 72, 76

Slatkin, M., 53, 59, 60, 61

slime mold, 64, 82

Slobodchikoff, C.N., 104, 105

Sober, E., 14, 165, 185, 186, 189, 192, 225

sociobiology, 8, 75

Soule, M.E., 144

spatial diffusion, 77

spatial distribution. See natural selection: spatial distribution and

species

distinctness of, 5, 133, 141, 158, 159, 160, 174, 194

Spencer, H., 25, 28, 140, 225

Spendlove, R.S., 44

spontaneous creation, 20, 21

Stearns, S.C., 127, 143, 150

Stenseth, N.C., 143

Stewart, R.N., 105

Stidham, T., 46

Strahler, J.R., 105

Strobeck, C., 144

supervenience, 189, 193

survival of the fittest

as paradigm for natural selection. See natural selection paradigms

as short cut for understanding natural selection, xiii, 25, 27, 28, 70, 142, 170, 172, 182, 194

occurrence in evolution. See natural selection paradigms

optimality theory and, 143, 194

tautology and. See tautology

what Darwin meant, 25, 28, 73, 140, 141

Szathmáry, E., xv, 7, 8, 9, 20, 21, 22, 27, 28, 41, 44, 72, 102, 105, 108, 118, 124, 131, 141, 173

T

Takahashi, H., 104

Talbot, C.C.J., 104

Tanka, K., 104

tautology, xiii, 5, 72, 133, 140, 141, 142, 155, 165, 178, 183, 184, 199

Taylor, P.D., 61, 72

Temin, H.M., 104

Templeton, A., 156, 157, 225

ten Donkelaar, J.R., 73

Thoday, J.M., 166

Thor, A.D., 104

tit-for-tat, 76, 77, 78, 79. See also prisoner's dilemma game

Towe, R.M., 40

tragedy of the commons, 32, 33, 80, 136

transition, evolutionary

characteristics of, 6, 7, 8, 9, 12, 29, 30, 33, 35, 42, 45, 47, 53, 54, 62, 67, 102, 112, 113, 114, 117, 122, 123, 124, 125, 127, 128, 129, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 151, 152, 165, 170, 174, 177, 178, 179, 181, 187, 191, 200, 201, 202. See cooperation: trades fitness between levels

conflict mediation and. See conflict mediation

from cells to organisms, xi, xv, 81-106, 107-32, 6, 7, 42, 45, 48, 64-66, 64, 65, 66, 81, 82, 87, 136, 150, 151, 152, 162, 163, 168, 169, 177, 178

from gene groups to cells, 29-48, 3, 7, 19, 22, 29, 39, 40, 47, 53, 80, 152, 168

from genes to gene groups, 29-48, 19-28, 7, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 47, 137

interpretation as modification of lower level change, 107-32

role of fitness in, 107-32, 133-40, 203-32, 3

Tsiotou, , A.G., 104

Turelli, M., 55

U

unit of selection. See Darwin's conditions

Uyenoyama, M.K., 67

V

Van Damme, J., 138

van der Stappen, J.W., 104

van Heerwaarden, J.S., 73

Van Holde, K.E., 39

Vemulapalli, G.K., 6, 19, 21, 22, 23, 45, 143, 168, 169, 171, 172, 174

Vichot, F., 138

virus, 44, 45, 46, 88

influenza, 44

phage T4, 45, 46

reovirus, 44

unsegmented, 44

Volvocales, 118, 119

W

Wade, M.J., xv, 66

Watanabe, H., 104

Weismann, A., 150, 151, 152

Werren, J.H., 138

White, R., 104

Whitham, T.G., 104, 105

Williams, B.R.G., 104

Williams, G.C., 76, 161

Wilson, D.S., xv, 40, 77

Wilson, E.O., xv, 7, 8, 124

Wilson, H.B., 73

Wimsatt, W., xv, 16, 17

Winkler-Oswatitsh, R., 19, 22, 29

Woese, C.R., 40, 233

Wolbachia, 138

Wright, S., xiv, xv, 41, 42, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 61, 67, 145, 228

Wrightian fitness, 175, 233. See also individual fitness

Wright's fitness function, 52, 53, 54, 61, 67, 145

Wright's FST statistic, 41, 226, 228

Wu, C., 138

X

Xiao, S., 129

Y

Yandell, D.W., 104

Yeger, H., 104

Z

Zeeman, E.C., 72

Zhang, Y., 129

zygote

origin of. See conflict mediation: zygote stage and